Trypanosoma cruzi: ancestral genomes and population structure

Although the genome of Trypanosoma cruzi has been completely sequenced, little is known about its population structure and evolution. Since 1999, two major evolutionary lineages presenting distinct epidemiological characteristics have been recognised: T. cruzi I and T. cruzi II. We describe new and important aspects of the population structure of the parasite, and unequivocally characterise a third ancestral lineage that we propose to name T. cruzi III. Through a careful analysis of haplotypes (blocks of genes that are stably transmitted from generation to generation of the parasite), we inferred at least two hybridisation events between the parental lineages T. cruzi II and T. cruzi III. The strain CL Brener, whose genome was sequenced, is one such hybrid. Based on these results, we propose a simple evolutionary model based on three ancestral genomes, T. cruzi I, T. cruzi II and T. cruzi III. At least two hybridisation events produced evolutionarily viable progeny, and T. cruzi III was the cytoplasmic donor for the resulting offspring (as identified by the mitochondrial clade of the hybrid strains) in both events. This model should be useful to inform evolutionary and pathogenetic hypotheses regarding T. cruzi.

Functional complementation of a yeast knockout strain by Schistosoma mansoni Rho1 GTPase in the presence of caffeine, an agent that affects mutants defective in the protein kinase C signal transduction pathway

In a previous study, the Schistosoma mansoni Rho1 protein was able to complement Rho1 null mutant Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells at restrictive temperatures and under osmotic stress (low calcium concentration) better than the human homologue (RhoA). It is known that under osmotic stress, the S. cerevisiae Rho1 triggers two distinct pathways: activation of the membrane 1,3-beta-glucan synthase enzymatic complex and activation of the protein kinase C1 signal transduction pathway, promoting the transcription of response genes. In the present work the SmRho1 protein and its mutants smrho1E97P, smrho1L101T, and smrho1E97P, L101T were used to try to clarify the basis for the differential complementation of Rho1 knockout yeast strain by the human and S. mansoni genes. Experiments of functional complementation in the presence of caffeine and in the presence of the osmotic regulator sorbitol were conducted. SmRho1 and its mutants showed a differential complementation of the yeast cells in the presence of caffeine, since smrho1E97P and smrho1E97P, L101T mutants showed a delay in the growth when compared to the yeast complemented with the wild type SmRho1. However, in the presence of sorbitol and caffeine the wild type SmRho1 and mutants showed a similar complementation phenotype, as they allowed yeast growth in all caffeine concentrations tested.

Roteiro clínico para identificação e aconselhamento de portadoras de mutações nos genes BRCA1 e BRCA2 / Clinical guide for the identification and counseling of carries of mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes

A síndrome hereditária de câncer de mama e ovário (SHCMO), causada por mutações nos genes BRCA1 e BRCA2, é responsável por cerca de 4% de todos os casos de câncer de mama. A identificação das famílias com SHCMO e o aconselhamento da paciente sadia portadora de mutação em BRCA1 ou BRCA2 são de enorme importância na prevenção de novos casos de câncer de mama e ovário. Neste artigo, utilizando o exemplo de uma família real como modelo de conduta correta e bem-sucedida, fornecemos um guia clínico prático para que o mastologista possa lidar de forma efetiva com a SHCMO. Inicialmente, discutimos de maneira racional a identificação das famílias de alto risco, passamos para a explicação de como solicitar um teste genético de BRCA1 /BRCA2, como interpretar os resultados laboratoriais e como fazer a testagem das familiares sadias com risco de serem portadoras de mutações e terminamos descrevendo o aconselhamento clínico e genético pós-teste. Finalmente, enfatizamos que há complexidades significativas inerentes ao processo, em especial na avaliação do significado clínico das mutações e no aconselhamento final. Assim, recomendamos que este trabalho seja feito por mastologistas e geneticistas em equipe.

The syndrome of hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (SHBOC), caused by mutations in the genes BRCA1 e BRCA2, is responsible for approximately 4% of all cases of breast cancer. The ascertainment of families with SHBOC and counseling of the healthy carrier of a mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2 have great importance in the prevention of new cases of breast and ovarian cancer. In this article, using a real case as an example of proper and efficient management, we provide a practical clinical guide for use by the breast specialist in dealing with the SHBOC. We first discuss the identification of high risk families, then we explain how to ask for a genetic test of BRCA1/BRCA2, how to interpret the laboratory results and how to do further testing in healthy family members at risk of carrying mutations and we move on to describe the process clinical and genetic post-test counseling. Finally, we emphasize that there are significant complexities inherent in the testing process, especially in the evaluation of the clinical meaning of mutations and in the final counseling of patients. Thus, we recommend that this evaluation be done by breast specialists and geneticists as a team.

Razões para banir o conceito de raça da medicina brasileira / Reasons for banishing the concept of race from Brazilian medicine

O conceito de 'raça' faz parte do arcabouço canônico da medicina, associado à idéia de que cor e/ou ancestralidade biológica são relevantes como indicadores de predisposição a doenças ou de resposta a fármacos. Essa posição decorre de uma visão tipológica de raças humanas. O baixo grau de variabilidade genética e de estruturação da espécie humana é incompatível com a existência de raças como entidades biológicas e indica que considerações de cor e/ou ancestralidade geográfica pouco ou nada contribuem para a prática médica, especialmente no cuidado do paciente individual. Mesmo doenças ditas 'raciais', como a anemia falciforme, decorrem de estratégias evolucionárias de populações expostas a agentes infecciosos específicos. Para Paul Gilroy, o conceito social de raça é 'tóxico', contamina a sociedade como um todo e tem sido usado para oprimir e fomentar injustiças, mesmo dentro do contexto médico.

Trypanosoma cruzi: genetic structure of populations and relevance of genetic variability to the pathogenesis of chagas disease

Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, has a variable clinical course, ranging from symptomless infection to severe chronic disease with cardiovascular or gastrointestinal involvement or, occasionally, overwhelming acute episodes. The factors influencing this clinical variability have not been elucidated, but it is likely that the genetic variability of both the host and the parasite are of importance. In this work we review the the genetic structure of T. cruzi populations and analyze the importance of genetic variation of the parasite in the pathogenesis of the disease under the light of the histotropic-clonal model.

Pode a genética definir quem deve se beneficiar das cotas universitárias e demais ações afirmativas? / Can the genetics define who must benefit of university quotas and too much affirmative action?

Neste trabalho nós usamos o instrumental da genética molecular e da genética de populações para estimar quantitativamente a contribuição africana para a formação do povo brasileiro. Examinamos dois compartimentos genômicos: o DNA mitocondrial, de herança matrilínea, e o DNA nuclear, de herança bi-parental. Os estudos mitocondriais revelaram que aproximadamente 30 por cento dos brasileiros autoclassificados como brancos e 80 por cento dos negros apresentam linhagens maternas características da áfrica subsaariana. A partir destes dados, estimamos que pelo menos 89 milhões de brasileiros são afro-descendentes, um número bem superior aos 76 milhões de pessoas que se declararam negros (pretos e pardos) no censo de 2000 do IBGE. As análises de polimorfismos nucleares com marcadores "informativos de ancestralidade" mostraram resultados mais expressivos ainda. Usando estudos de brasileiros autoclassificados como brancos de várias regiões do Brasil, estimamos que aproximadamente 146 milhões de brasileiros (86 por cento da população) apresentam mais de 10 por cento de contribuição africana em seu genoma. Estes números devem ser levados em conta nas discussões sobre ações afirmativas no Brasil, mas em um sentido descritivo e não prescritivo.

Clustering of Schistosoma mansoni mRNA sequences and analysis of the most transcribed genes: implications in metabolism and biology of different developmental stages

The study of the Schistosoma mansoni genome, one of the etiologic agents of human schistosomiasis, is essential for a better understanding of the biology and development of this parasite. In order to get an overview of all S. mansoni catalogued gene sequences, we performed a clustering analysis of the parasite mRNA sequences available in public databases. This was made using softwares PHRAP and CAP3. The consensus sequences, generated after the alignment of cluster constituent sequences, allowed the identification by database homology searches of the most expressed genes in the worm. We analyzed these genes and looked for a correlation between their high expression and parasite metabolism and biology. We observed that the majority of these genes is related to the maintenance of basic cell functions, encoding genes whose products are related to the cytoskeleton, intracellular transport and energy metabolism. Evidences are presented here that genes for aerobic energy metabolism are expressed in all the developmental stages analyzed. Some of the most expressed genes could not be identified by homology searches and may have some specific functions in the parasite

Cloning and molecular characterization of the Schistosoma mansoni genes RbAp48 and histone H4

The human nuclear protein RbAp48 is a member of the tryptophan/aspartate (WD) repeat family, which binds to the retinoblastoma (Rb) protein. It also corresponds to the smallest subunit of the chromatin assembly factor and is able to bind to the helix 1 of histone H4, taking it to the DNA in replication. A cDNA homologous to the human gene RbAp48 was isolated from a Schistosoma mansoni adult worm library and named SmRbAp48. The full length sequence of SmRbAp48 cDNA is 1036 bp long, encoding a protein of 308 amino acids. The transcript of SmRbAp48 was detected in egg, cercariae and schistosomulum stages. The protein shows 84% similarity with the human RbAp48, possessing four WD repeats on its C-terminus. A hypothetical tridimensional structure for the SmRbAp48 C-terminal domain was constructed by computational molecular modeling using the b-subunit of the G protein as a model. To further verify a possible interaction between SmRbAp48 and S. mansoni histone H4, the histone H4 gene was amplified from adult worm genomic DNA using degenerated primers. The gene fragment of SmH4 is 294 bp long, encoding a protein of 98 amino acids which is 100% identical to histone H4 from Drosophila melanogaster

Frequency of the CCR5delta32 allele in Brazilians: a study in colorectal cancer and in HTLV-I infection

A observaçäo de que indivíduos homozigotos para uma deleçäo de 32 pares de base no gene que codifica para o receptor 5 de cc-quimiocinas apresentam um menor risco de contrair a infecçäo por HIV-1 levou à investigaçäo da freqüência deste polimorfismo em várias populaçöes mundiais. É importante investigar se o CCR5delta32 é um fator a ser considerado na epidemiologia do HIV em populaçöes individuais. Com estes pressupostos em mente nós estabelecemos a freqüência do CCR5delta32 em uma grande amostra (907 indivíduos näo-relacionados) da populaçäo urbana do sudeste brasileiro, estratificada da seguinte maneira: 322 indivíduos sadios, 354 pacientes com câncer colorretal e 229 doadores de sangue. Os três grupos apresentaram essencialmente a mesma freqüência alélica de CCR5delta32 e a comparaçäo par-a-par näo revelou diferenças significativas. Assim, os nossos resultados podem ser agrupados para fornecer uma estimativa confiável de 0,053 ñ 0,005 da freqüência alélica de CCR5delta32. Os doadores de sangue compreendiam 50 indivíduos soronegativos para HTLV-I, 115 indivíduos assintomáticos por ELISA mas com resultados indeterminados em Western blot, 49 indivíduos soropositivos para HTLV-I mas assintomáticos e 15 indivíduos soropositivos para HTLV-I sintomáticos com mielopatia. Foi observado um sugestivo gradiente decrescente da freqüência alélica de CCR5delta32 nestas categorias. Entretanto, quando aplicamos o teste exato de Fisher, näo emergiram diferenças significativas. Para uma melhor avaliaçäo da influência do alelo CCR5delta32 na probabilidade de infectar-se com HTLV-I ou de desenvolver doença clínica seräo necessários estudos com um maior número de doadores de sangue.

Screening fetal losses for monosomy X with a simple PCR-based procedure

Para a detecçäo molecular de monossomia X em perdas fetais espontâneas, nós exploramos uma estratégia baseada em perda e heterozigosidade, desenvolvendo um sistema multiplex fluorescente que permite a amplificaçäo simultânea de cinco microssatélites em uma regiäo com baixa recombinaçäo no cromossomo X. A análise foi entäo feita por densitometria a laser assistida por computador. Nenhum caso de homozigosidade em todos os cinco locos foi encontrado em 30 mulheres normais estudadas, nem em 37 mulheres cuja tipagem foi extraída do banco de dados do CEPH. Além disso, todos os casos de monossomia X previamente diagnosticadas por citogenética convencional apresentaram a prevista perda de heterozigosidade. Quando estudamos 19 casos de perdas fetais femininas do primeiro trimestre da gravidez, encontramos quatro amostras uniformemente homozigotas em todos os locos (21 por cento), de acordo com a proporçäo esperada de casos de monossomia X em perdas fetais do primeiro trimestre. Concluímos que o sistema multiplex que nós desenvolvemos apresenta alta diversidade e alta eficiência de amplificaçäo pela PCR e constitui um método simples e útil de triagem para monossomia X em abortamentos e natimortos.

The population structure of Trypanosoma cruzi: expanded analysis of 54 strains using eight polymorphic CA-repeat microsatellites

Recently we cloned and sequenced the first eight Trypanosoma cruzi polymorphic microsatellite loci and studied 31 clones and strains to obtain valuable information about the population structure of the parasite. We have now studied 23 further strains, increasing from 11 to 31 the number of strains obtained from patients with chronic Chagas disease. This expanded set of 54 strains and clones analyzed with the eight microsatellites markers confirmed the previously observed diploidy, clonal population organization and very high polymorphism of T. cruzi. Moreover, this new study disclosed two new features of the population genetic structure of T. cruzi. The first was the discovery that, similarly to what we had previously shown for strains isolated from insect vectors, mammals and humans with acute disease, isolates from patients in the chronic phase of Chagas disease could also be multiclonal, albeit at a reduced proportion. Second, when we used parsimony to display the genetic relationship among the clonal lineages in an unrooted Wagner network we observed, like before, a good correlation of the tree topography with the classification in three clusters on the basis of single locus analysis of the ribosomal RNA genes. However, a significant new finding was that now the strains belonging to cluster 2 split in two distant sub-clusters. This observation suggests that the evolutionary history of T. cruzi may be more complex than we previously thought.

Diagnosis of the fragile X syndrome in males using methylation-specific PCR of the FMRI locus

We have developed a non-isotopic technique based on methylation-specific PCR (MSP) of the FMR1 promoter for the identification of fragile X full mutations among men. DNA samples were first treated with sodium bisulfite to convert unmethylated, but not methylated, cytosines to uracil, followed by PCR amplification with oligonucleotide primers specific for methylated versus unmethylated DNA. We designed two primer pairs: one produced a 142-bp fragment from the bisulfite-treated methylated CpG island, while the other generated an 84-bp product from the treated non-methylated promoter. In normal males only the 84-bp fragment was seen, while the diagnosis of FRAXA was doubly indicated by the appearance of a 142-bp product together with absence or weak visualization of the 84-bp band. As an indispensable internal control for the efficiency of the sodium bisulfite treatment, we used a primer pair specific for the imprinted maternal methylated version of the CpG island of the SNRPN gene on human chromosome 15. Using the methylation-specific PCR we identified with 100 per cent sensitivity and accuracy eight previously diagnosed FRAXA male patients mixed with 42 normal controls. Because of its simplicity and high efficiency, methylation-specific PCR may become the method of choice for the diagnosis of the fragile X syndrome in mentally retarded males.

Update of the gene discovery program in Schistosoma mansoni with the expressed sequence tag approach

Continuing the Schistosoma mansoni Genome Project 363 new templates were sequenced generating 205 more ESTs corresponding to 91 genes. Seventy four of theses genes (81 per cent) had not previously been descibed in S. mansoni. Among the newly discovered genes there are several of significant biological interest such as synaptophysin, NIFs-like and rho-GDP dissociation inhibitor.